A <a href="http://iopscience.iop.org/1748-9326/8/2/024035/article">study</a> of over 40,000 written entries in Irish Annals and ice core measurements shows a strong correlation between <a href="http://www.windows2universe.org/earth/interior/eruptions.html">volcanic eruptions</a> and extreme cold weather in Ireland over a 1200 year period, from 431 to 1649.  During this time up to 48 volcanic eruptions were identified in Greenland ice core records through deposition of volcanic sulfate in annual layers of ice. Find out more about <a href="http://www.windows2universe.org/earth/climate/geosphere_volcanoes_influence_on_climate.html">volcanoes and climate</a>.<p><small><em>Image Courtesy of Marco Fulle</em></small></p>How did life evolve on <a href="/earth/earth.html&dev=1/earth/Atmosphere/moons/h/neptune/k=/teacher_resources/games_space_sense.html">Earth</a> during the <a href="/earth/past/Archean.html&dev=1/earth/Atmosphere/moons/h/neptune/k=/teacher_resources/games_space_sense.html">Archean</a>, when the <a href="/sun/sun.html&dev=1/earth/Atmosphere/moons/h/neptune/k=/teacher_resources/games_space_sense.html">Sun</a> was about 25% weaker than today?  The Earth should have been <a href="/earth/polar/cryosphere_glacier1.html&dev=1/earth/Atmosphere/moons/h/neptune/k=/teacher_resources/games_space_sense.html">glaciated</a>, if <a href="/earth/climate/earth_greenhouse.html&dev=1/earth/Atmosphere/moons/h/neptune/k=/teacher_resources/games_space_sense.html">greenhouse</a> gas concentration was the same as today.  <a href="http://www.manchester.ac.uk/aboutus/news/display/?id=10798">Researchers</a> studying the <a href="/physical_science/physics/atom_particle/isotope.html&dev=1/earth/Atmosphere/moons/h/neptune/k=/teacher_resources/games_space_sense.html">isotopic</a> signatures of Earth's early atmosphere in <a href="/earth/geology/rocks_intro.html&dev=1/earth/Atmosphere/moons/h/neptune/k=/teacher_resources/games_space_sense.html">rocks</a> from Northern Australia have ruled out high levels of <a href="/physical_science/chemistry/nitrogen_molecular.html&dev=1/earth/Atmosphere/moons/h/neptune/k=/teacher_resources/games_space_sense.html">nitrogen</a> as a possible way to increase warming from <a href="/earth/Atmosphere/overview.html&dev=1/earth/Atmosphere/moons/h/neptune/k=/teacher_resources/games_space_sense.html">atmospheric</a> <a href="/physical_science/chemistry/carbon_dioxide.html&dev=1/earth/Atmosphere/moons/h/neptune/k=/teacher_resources/games_space_sense.html">carbon dioxide</a>.<p><small><em>Image courtesy of Manchester University</em></small></p>This historic image is the first ever taken from a spacecraft in orbit about <a href="/mercury/mercury.html&dev=1/earth/Atmosphere/moons/h/neptune/k=/teacher_resources/games_space_sense.html">Mercury</a>, the innermost planet of the solar system.  Taken on 3/29/2011 by <a href="/space_missions/robotic/messenger/messenger.html&dev=1/earth/Atmosphere/moons/h/neptune/k=/teacher_resources/games_space_sense.html">MESSENGER</a>, it shows numerous craters across the <a href="/mercury/Interior_Surface/Surface/surface_overview.html&dev=1/earth/Atmosphere/moons/h/neptune/k=/teacher_resources/games_space_sense.html">surface</a> of the planet.  Temperatures there can reach over 800F because Mercury is so close to the Sun and rotates so slowly.  MESSENGER entered orbit around Mercury earlier in March 2011.<p><small><em>NASA/Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory/Carnegie Institution of Washington</em></small></p>Anti-crepuscular rays are beams of sunlight that appear to converge on a point opposite the sun. They are similar to crepuscular rays, but are seen opposite the sun in the sky. Anti-crepuscular rays are most frequently visible near sunrise or sunset. This photo of anti-crepuscular rays was taken at sunset in Boulder, Colorado. Crepuscular rays are usually much brighter than anti-crepuscular rays.<p><small><em> Image Courtesy of Carlye Calvin</em></small></p><p>You don't normally see <a href="/space_weather/space_weather.html&dev=1/earth/Atmosphere/moons/h/neptune/k=/teacher_resources/games_space_sense.html">space weather</a> forecasted on the evening news, but it does impact life on <a href="/earth/earth.html&dev=1/earth/Atmosphere/moons/h/neptune/k=/teacher_resources/games_space_sense.html">Earth</a> in many ways. What are the threats posed from all of these natural disasters and how can we work to mitigate those threats beforehand? </p>
<p>Check out the materials about natural disasters in <a href="/earth/natural_hazards/when_nature_strikes.html&dev=1/earth/Atmosphere/moons/h/neptune/k=/teacher_resources/games_space_sense.html">NBC Learn Videos</a>, and their earth system science connections built up by the related secondary classroom activities.</p><p><small><em>NBC Learn</em></small></p>On May 20, 2013, a massive EF5 <a href="http://www.windows2universe.org/earth/Atmosphere/tornado.html">tornado</a> hit Moore, Oklahoma, devastating communities and lives.  The tornado, on the ground for 40 minutes, took a path through a subdivision of homes, destroying block after block of homes, and hitting two elementary schools just as school was ending as well as a hospital. Hundreds of people were injured, and 24 were killed.<p><small><em>Image courtesy of Ks0stm, Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported license</em></small></p>

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